Hamlet Essay

Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy shaped the work of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Both are revenge tragedies that include the mystery of death. Behind the mystery, there is a spirit of the dead who appears before the protagonists, Hieronimo and Hamlet, to cry out for revenge. In The Spanish Tragedy and Hamlet, soliloquy plays an important role. It is often used to express the true feelings of the main characters. In both tragedies, the protagonists use soliloquy to demonstrate a central dilemma that slows the main character’s process of vengeance. The dilemma is that it is sinful to commit a murder, but it is also unfair to keep the criminal alive. Their soliloquies show their desire to commit suicide to escape from the dilemma. Another obvious dilemma is that suicide is a sin as well. Thus, the question is whether to live to satisfy the ghost and be damned, or to kill oneself and be damned. Realizing revenge as the better choice of the two, both mad geniuses decide to seek revenge at last. Soliloquies also display the character’s madness. It is their uncertainty, their attempt to reveal the truth, and their mind persistently seeking for reason that drives the avengers to some extent of madness; however, they are not completely insane. Their madness only acts as a disguise so they seem harmless. Both Hieronimo and Hamlet are deceitful. They stay close to the murderers as a mad person grieving for the death of their loved ones, then they act to their plan when it is least expected. The two avengers succeed in the revenge. Of course, the heroes, along with many other characters in the play, die at the end.

Why Do People Like Scarry Movies

For years people have been scared by horror movies and they continue going back. Alfred Hitchcock once said, â€Å"drama is life with the dull bits left out. † Why do people like to watch other people get hurt and die while being scared enough to make them jerk in their seat? Movie goers like horror movies because people in general have dull lives. Males just use it as a opportunity to get close to their partner, while females like to get scared while in the presence of their â€Å"man. † Every day people simply get up, go to work, and come home for supper before going back to bed. People believe that their lives are boring. That is why horror movies are popular. Movie goers like to be able to see blood, guts, fingers and toes, while having the ability to simply walk away. People in general want to have suspense in their lives but want to be able to turn it off. As for men, they like to be frightened as well as women, but most of all men like the sex appeal of horror movies. Almost every horror movie made in the last 20 years has a young attractive female actor running around mindlessly. If men were not attracted to this, then producers obviously wouldn’t make movies this way. Men would also rather take their partner with them to see these kinds of movies. Men know their â€Å"female friend† will want to cuddle up! Women on the other hand want to have the fear factor but want their partner to be by their side. Most women movie goers will NOT watch a horror film alone. They want to feel the protection of their â€Å"man. † It allows them to be scared while feeling secure at the same time. Men of course don’t mind this at all. They planned on it! Most horror movies are made for the viewing age of 17 – 30. The people in this age group still enjoy going out on the weekends to get away from the pressures of school and work. Horror movies give excitement and suspense in the lives of movie goers. It presents trust between partners when the girl jumps in her seat and clenches the arm of her boyfriend. It makes men feel strong as if they are protecting their partner. Horror movies allow movie goers to have a little bit of the real world while knowing they can go home and rest comfortably in their own bed.

Analysis of graphs and data Essay

After conducting some research I have found that 67% of heathers target market would buy their jewellery from a shop this is because people feel more comfortable with actually being able to see what they are buying instead of an image on a website which could have been manipulated to appear more attractive. One disadvantage of using a shop would be that it is difficult to see all the jewellery and can be tiring. The remaining 33% said that they would purchase their jewellery online because it is often cheaper, easier to browse and offers a wider range of goods than that of a shop. We have to remember that heathers target market is the teenage fashion market and if they are purchasing the jewellery themselves they will not be able to buy online because they would not have a credit card. My research showed that buying jewellery from a market stall is very un-popular I think this is because people feel there is a lack of quality from products sold on market stalls. One advantage of distributing through a market stall is that people would already expect budget priced jewellery and would be in the correct place for your target market to find it. However going for a market stall would not be a good idea as the primary research has shown there will be very little customers. The results of my questionnaire have shown that most people spend about i 21-i 30 when shopping for jewellery therefore we know that our jewellery should be priced in and below this class interval. Larger jewellery stores operate their business through shops and open more branches in different areas as their business develops. If you look at the major names in the jewellery market such as Argos, H. samuels and Goldsmiths you will see that they all use both the internet and a shop. Most large jewellery stores use distribution method 2 which is producer-retailer-consumer. Low budget shops also use this method. However, larger stores also use distribution method 1 which is producer-consumer using there websites however lower budget stores are not popular enough to make a lot of money online so just use distribution methods 2 and 3.

Urban Planning In China Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Urban Planning In China - Research Paper Example Transportation challenges drive the China’s urban transport policy. The local authorities in, therefore, localize this system to manage transportation crisis in particular cities. Beijing is the capital city of China, business, and transportation hub. It has a sophisticated transport system comprising of the road, air, and bicycle railroads. The city also has a large population living with many registered cars on the roads. The result is widespread traffic congestion in the city. Usually, the city is gridlocked, and the situation seems to be on the rise (Wang, Zhang, Cao & Liu, 2012). Traffic problems in Beijing result from rapid urbanization, increasing inhabitant earnings and the national policy that encourages automobile ownership among the citizens as a strategy for promoting economic growth. These complications lead to serious problems affecting urban growth, quality of urban life and the overall economic development, for instance, longer time in commuting. Hence, the gov ernment through the relevant authorities works to combat the congestion and provide better transportation systems for the city.  The Beijing Municipal Committee of Transportation performs most of the planning and implementation of transportation interventions. The committee undertakes national guidelines, laws and policies, regulations and codes for the development of transportation sector. In addition, the body has mandates of inspecting and supervising the implementation of major infrastructural projects to decongest the city.

People on organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

People on organization - Essay Example In a team, there are conditions that can lead to positive results. However, negative impacts are also unavoidable within teams. In this paper, the conditions of positive and negative results are illustrated with respect to negotiations with teams. This illustration aims at determining the fact that a team is not just a group of individuals with a crowd mentality about a common issue. This is because there are many factors that are responsible for developing a team, and these factors include the kind of skills that members of a team have, the motivational policy that is put in place to encourage members of a team in to working hard. These are some of the factors responsible for developing a team, and there are many more. There are many advantages of a team than there could be possible limitations of the same. In management, organizing employees into teams and coordinating their effort has an advantage of increasing the productivity of a business. The improvement in productivity is as a result of the synergy generated within the team. The synergy is built up as a result of a coordinated effort among the members of the team. Since a team relies on a coordinated effort, specialization within a team is highly imperative. This means that a team can comprise of members that perform specific specialized subtask that will be joined with the efforts of others to complete one whole task. In specialization, the team becomes more efficient since the actions performed by each member are limited to their scope and easy for them to achieve (Baldwin & Migneault 1996). Delegation of duty is another important aspect of teams. In management, team leaders can decide to allocate different tasks to members as they deem fit. The criteria used in delegation can be based on talent and capacity of the different members of a group. The result of this effective delegation process is that each member will be awarded

Effective Ethical, Moral, and Legal Leadership Term Paper

Effective Ethical, Moral, and Legal Leadership - Term Paper Example It is worth noting that nurses are considered the primary care givers and hence they directly impact on the quality and delivery of services. There are a number of factors that contributed to this problem. There was lack of involvement of nurses in making decisions regarding patients health issues by the physicians and doctors and hence there was no teamwork. According to Chiarella and Mclnnes (2008), "The factors which influence nurses ability to deliver quality patient care are: a multi-disciplinary team approach to patient care delivery, the ability to provide care which satisfies nursing and patient satisfaction, a formula to ensure reasonable workloads, and a work environment which fosters nurse autonomy and control over practice in order to provide safe patient care" (p. 79). These factors were not considered in this institution. The contributions of the nurses towards delivery of services and care were not respected nor considered in the course of treatment by the doctors. In a bid to make the necessary changes to improve the quality of nursing care, there was the need for involvement of nurses in the provision of care. There was also the need to respect and consider their contributions (Walsh, 2010). Subsequently, there are a number of traits that were necessary in the decision making process to ensure the involvement of nurses. Some of these traits included respect, persuasion abilities, compassion, engagement, collaboration, communication, and supportive traits. Ensuring engagement and collaboration translated to nurses, doctors, and other individuals involved in provision of care working as team and hence quality of care was significantly improved, Other traits such as effective communication, persuasion, and respect were important in communicating the need for change. Based on the above dilemma, it is imperative to consider whether effective leaders are born or made. Some people believe that they are born while

Shell and tube heat exchanger design Coursework

Shell and tube heat exchanger design - Coursework Example The wall has to be conducive to allow heat exchange and still be sufficiently strong to withstand fluid/gas pressures. In shell and tube heat exchangers, two closed process streams move across the unit; one move inside the tube and the other moves on the shell side. Convection and conduction allows heat to pass from hot stream to cold stream from the side of the tube side or from shell side. As temperature variation between the process streams rise, heat exchange rate for every surface area unit also rises. Conversely, heat exchangers per surface are unit drops non-linearly as temperature difference between the two process streams drops. Increasing the effective surface area of the entire system helps in maintenance of the total transfer of heat between two streams although eventually the system reaches a point where extra surface area has no effect on extra heat transfer. The other variable which affects heat exchange in shell and tube exchanger is each process stream’s velocity. This velocity directly contributes to a rise in convection cold process and hot process streams. Raising the velocity also raises heat exchange, more especially, in countercurrent design. Finally, velocity increments are limited by maximum permitted for a specific metallurgy constituting shell or tube. For carbon steel, for instance, velocity cannot exceed 6 ft. /sec. whilst for the case of stainless and high-alloy steel; rate is 12 ft. /sec. for liquids. The three conventional types of shell and tube heat exchangers are parallel, cross flow and countercurrent flow types. The names are derived from the process stream directions in relation to each other. In countercurrent heat exchanger type, average temperature variation between the process streams is optimized over the exchanger’s length, showing the highest heat transfer rate efficiency over a surface area un it. With respect to existing temperature variations observed during operation, parallel heat exchangers exhibit the lowest heat transfer rates, and then cross flow heat exchangers, and finally, countercurrent heat exchangers. Counterflow and parallel heat exchangers are illustrated below, Figure 1: Counterflow and parallel heat exchangers The design of shell and tube heat exchanger depends on flow pattern through the respective heat exchanger. It is however the most widely used heat exchanger in industries and can adopt counter-flow, parallel flow or cross-flow pattern. However, heat transfer area is a major factor in design calculation. Theoretically though, shell and tube heat exchanger flow patter is conventionally not specifically counter-flow, or parallel. Rather, it incorporates a mixture of counter-flow, parallel flow and cross-flow. Log mean temperature variation, used for design of shell and tube heat exchanger, works best for varied flow patterns occurring in this kind of heat exchanger. Shell and tube heat exchangers Shell and tube heat exchangers in their various construction modifications are probably the most widespread and commonly used basic heat exchanger configuration in the process industries. The reasons for this general acceptance are several. The shell and tube heat exchanger provides a comparatively large ratio of heat transfer area to volume and weight. It provides this surface in a form which is relatively easy to construction in a wide range of sizes and which is mechanically rugged enough to withstand normal shop fabrication stresses, shipping and field erection stresses, and normal operating conditions. There are many modifications of the basic configuration, which can be used to solve special problems. The shell and tube exchanger can be reasonably easily cleaned, and those components most subject to failure -

System anylsis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

System anylsis - Assignment Example Case study project Analysis The small businesses should plan and gather facts that will ensure that the business in operated and conducted in a profitable manner (Fertuck, 2009). The existing system is not effective to the business because it does not provide effective and efficient management information. The report being provided by the system is manually prepare and does not provide the owner of the business with reports that will enable the owner to aggregate the data. The information that can be generated can be easily get away and get lost or unauthorized person get it. New system should be developed which will easy the working and safeguard the information as well as safe time to retrieve the information. Business related upgrade The business should upgrade the system to strategies increase marketing, sales, quoting, billing and administration (Keng S., 2010). The system will help the business to prepare the work sheets of the employee and the company to prepare the payroll fo r the employee. System upgrades The business should develop new system to enable the business to operate more effectively and efficiently (Roger C., 2009). The computer system will help the business to achieve the predetermined objectives. ... This defines the management structure, specifies the formal communication structure and the chain of command. This will easy operation of the system since the system processes data required within a very short time and in an orderly manner. Feasibility study The aim of the business is to increase productivity and the performance of the business. This is enhanced by efficient and effective systems that might be employed by the business (Shelly, 2006). The systems should be able to provide effective way of communicating to customers. The system also must provide the payrolls and its less time consuming and the risk over the business is decreased. Recommendations for upgrading The alternative recommendation for upgrading the system is prototyping which is process of building a model of system. The prototypes are employed to help the designers build an information system that is easy to be used and manipulated by the user (Vinod K.G., 2004). This system is important since its reduction d evelopment time and cost, higher user satisfaction and also quantifiable user feedback. User requirement User requirements explain what users require from the system. User requirements specifications are written in the validation process. Functional requirements Functional requirements capture the intended characteristics of the system (Shelly, 2010). This characteristic can be expressed as service, task or functions the system is required to perform. In product development is useful to distinguish between the baseline functionality necessary for any system to compete in that product domain. Nonfunctional requirements Nonfunctional requirements describe system attributes such as maintainability, reliability, security and scalability (Roger

Experience in discipleship programs Personal Statement

Experience in discipleship programs - Personal Statement Example Then, the opening prayer was led by the pastor who also took the pulpit from the song leader as the program progresses. The topic discuss is wife's role in marriage. As an opener, the pastor refreshed his audience about the biblical duties of the wife as written in the Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. This activity allowed both couples to participate yet more focus has been given to the wives because the lesson was specifically for them. This discipleship program lasted for an hour and ended with the couple's praying together in the church's altar benches. The next discipleship program which I attended is a one on one discussion between a pastor and a church member who wanted to become a "worker" in the ministry. In this denomination, a member cannot simply participate in duties like singing in the choir or being a musician without being having undergone the rigorous application process. The qualification of a worker goes beyond having the talent and willingness to conduct the duty but more on having the spiritual requirements set by the church. A worker should receive his salvation first before he can commit himself to any church duty. After communicating his desire to become a worker, he will then undergo an indoctrination process where the major doctrines, conduct of a worker, and the proper lifestyle of a worker is fully and thoroughly discussed. Thus, what I attended in is a part of the one-on-one indoctrination process which is a must for every worker. The meeting started with a candid conversation by the pastor and the applican t. I was also introduced to the applicant and was invited to share my thoughts in the discussion. Afterwards, the pastor led the opening prayer. He then reviewed what was discussed in the previous session and then moved on to the other topics. For each specific doctrine discussed, the pastor read supporting Bible verses for the applicant to note. Afterwards, he asks the applicant what he thinks about the doctrine and inquires if he has any questions or objections. At one point, the applicant has difficulty in accepting a Bible doctrine and I have seen how the pastor laboriously explained everything through the aid of Bible verses. The discussion ended with a prayer this time led by applicant. The applicant and I was treated a cup of coffee and slice of cake courtesy of the pastor's wife after the activity. Both activities have really inspired me in leading a discipleship program of my own in the future. In the first experience, the pastor have explained to me their Couple's Night is considered as a discipleship program because it basically teaches how a disciple should conduct himself in order to truly follow the Master. He told me that instead of being just a mere program, their church consider discipleship as a lifestyle which should be a venue where the proper Christian virtues should be taught by the pastor. I am really impressed at this pastor's earnest dedication in following the Lord Jesus Christ's commandment of making everyone disciples. I realized that really, a discipleship program is not just a matter of following some written program but in teaching the members how to live a Christian life through

Economics in nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economics in nursing - Essay Example actice reveals that consensus is yet to be arrived for introducing uniform working standard for nurses in the US, which adversely affects nursing practice. According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing [AACN], â€Å"nursing education and the profession have an unparalleled opportunity and capability to address the clinical issues that face the nation’s current health care system.† (American association of colleges of nursing, 2007). However, there is prolonged resentment among nurse graduates for not recognizing their worth in medical delivery system and disparity in their educational standards, which is worth analyzing. Initial professional education of nurses in the United States was given in hospital schools and the system was established in the early 1870 that continued as late as 1945 with 99 percent of registered nurses (RNs) enrolling under this system. Young women aspiring to become nurses lived within the hospital, with an apprenticeship, â€Å"for a period ranging from six months to three years and learned how to nurse by practicing required skills on the institution’s patients.† (Ly naugh, 2006, p.4). The â€Å"Armstrong Bill† [eventually known as Nurse Practice Act] passed by the New York State Assembly on April 20, 1903, with the effort New York State Nurses’ Association and Rochester’s leading nurses, that gave certified nurses the title â€Å"Registered Nurses (RNs),† is an important milestone in the professionalization of nursing. (The Nursing Practice Act - the Armstrong act of 1903, n.d.) Advances in medical care, longer life expectancy, and baby boom after World War II â€Å"dramatically changed health care needs of the US population† that prompted changes in nursing practice, which in turn necessitated transformation of nursing curriculum and training needs. Major transformations in the US nursing education system took place after World War II, as ‘during the late 1940s and 1950s federal and state governments passed

British Empire and American Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

British Empire and American Revolution - Essay Example Later the Sugar act was reformed and tax was slashed to 3 pence a pound with new customs service .There was huge resistance in paying tax and towards the end of 1766, the tax was reduced to a penny for a barrel. Stamp Act of 1765 was another policy reformation declaring tax on that legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, playing cards, and hand bills. A stamp is affixed to confirm the tax payment. Colonies revolted against Stamp Act and threatened to boycott British goods. The British parliament revoked the stamp act in 1766 due to colonial pressure yet reinstating parliamentary supremacy by passing the declaratory act. There were duties imposed on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea imported into the colonies leading to colonial boycotts hampering the trade by 50%. Boston Massacre in 1770 was a reactive outburst of tension developed between British soldiers and the local crowd. The crowd was throwing snowballs at British soldiers and panicky soldiers killed 5 people. Boston Massacre paved way for the emergence of committees for correspondence .These committees gained more momentum by destroying the British colonial assets like ships. Monopoly on tea was granted in 1773 by parliament as a resource plan to rescue the East India Company from financial crisis. This act enabled East India Company to handle both the shipping and the sale of its tea, thereby decreasing the price of tea. This created havoc in colonies and they boycotted tea to express their revolt. Angered by the colonial revolts, Britain government introduced Coercive Acts, in 1774 closing Boston port, transferring the colonial trials to other colonies or Britain and enabling the soldiers to reside in private homes and finally revoking the self government in Massachusetts. Britain ai med at isolation of colonies by introducing Coercive Acts but on the contrary the act united the colonies to a greater extent leading to formation of First Continental congress boycotting English goods. The year 1775 and 1776 witnessed clear outburst of colonies towards British Colonial policies leading to death of nearly 73 Britain Warriors. Thus the above cited incidences paved for the revolt process with greater degree of resistance and colonies evolved as a battalion to combat against the British colonial policy and they succeeded in their mission after the war of American Independence leading to liberalization of colonies. Bibliography Gipson, Lawrence Henry. The British Empire before the American Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1939-1970. Essay 2 Fundamental change with regard to the colonists, slaves, Native Americans and women after American Revolution. . The American Revolution brought a series of changes in colonial rule and had a drastic impact not only political but also on all

The Santa Clara University ethics committee stated Essay Example for Free

The Santa Clara University ethics committee stated Essay he function of morals in society is more or less to distinguish between what is best for society as a whole, generally speaking, the way for the most people to be happy. Drugs in society are looked down upon, though widely used throughout civilization. More importantly, drugs are given a negative outlook especially when they put other innocent lives in danger. Drugs in the workplace create hazard upon hazard no matter what the job may be, however, people have the right to do whatever they want on their own free time, as long as it does not cause harm to others. This is where a moral dilemma is developed. Are the rights of others to have a safe working environment greater than the right to privacy? The morality of drug-testing is more than just a matter of drug-abuse in the workplace, as it presses the issue of an employees basic right to privacy as well as an employers right to getting the most out of each of their employees. Employers have the right to getting the most out of each worker and employees have the duty to protect society from any harm, financial, physical, or emotional. Therefore if employees must take drug tests to prove their ability, than drug testing should be morally and ethically acceptable. The 4th amendment guarantees citizens the right to privacy as long as what they do in their private lives does not harm other people. It has been argued time and time again that drug testing steals this right from people, and maybe in some ways it does. People do have the right to treat themselves how they want, and also have the right to enjoy life however they choose to enjoy it. As long as these measures go to an extent at which they violate no moral or ethical codes, privacy is surely acceptable. The idea of drugs entering the workplace is a threat to not only the user, but also employers themselves, the co-workers around them, and the innocent citizens of society. Â  Employers give opportunity to employees. This is called the Employment at Will principle. Employers hire based on who will make their business run on all cylinders, at the best possible production rate. The more productive the business, the more financially secure the business may become. So when an employee is not pulling his or her weight, the company must fix the problem or release the worker in order to find someone better prepared for the criteria the job entails. It is pure common sense that doing anything while under the influence of drugs or alcohol that the production is significantly diminished. The Santa Clara University Ethics Committee stated, Employers have a moral right to a fair days work in exchange for a fair days pay (SCU 1998). They claim that employers have the right to inquire into anything that seriously interferes with an employee rendering a fair days work (SCU 1998). Drugs and alcohol on the workplace only hurt the employer. That means the chance they took with the user failed them and that their business is not running as solid and smoothly as it should. Even more reason for employers to be pro-drug testing is some startling facts concerning drugs at work. First and foremost, the fact that approximately forty-four percent of young adults admit to having used drugs in the past year. These are all people entering the workforce. With this statistic in mind, it is only common sense for employers to fear that they are not getting the most out of each of their employees. If nearly one in every two workers is not performing the way they ought to be, then the business is probably not producing as well as it could be. The second figure that brings about major consideration is that drug and alcohol abuse cost employers nearly $100 billion in lost productivity per year. The number itself hurts the credibility of any worker, but more importantly, forces the employer to believe that their business may fall into that lost $100 billion somewhere. Why should an employer fear losing a great deal of money because their employees, who are given the opportunity to work and make money, are coming to work under the influence of drugs and alcohol? Philosopher Hugh LaFollette stated, Employers can make extensive demands on their employees, simply because it is their pleasure. The employer is giving the employee a chance to make a living. If the employee wants to retain a job, they need to show respect to their employer by not working while under the influence of drugs or alcohol. The employer owns the business; therefore the employer sets the standards. Â  Society as a whole is expected morally to protect each of their citizens, and if drugs are being brought into the workplace, a major moral dilemma is brought to attention. It is a fact that drugs and alcohol, while used on the job, can only cause harm. One survey reported that employees who are drug users have three times the accident rate as non-users.

Definition And Types Of Anxiety English Language Essay

Definition And Types Of Anxiety English Language Essay In order to understand the specific type of anxiety that learners experience in a foreign language classroom, it is important to first consider anxiety in general terms. As a psychological construct, anxiety is described as a state of apprehension, a vague fear that is only indirectly associated with an object (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 3). Speiberger (1976, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 13) distinguished anxiety from fear by pointing out that although anxiety and fear are both unpleasant emotional reactions to the stimulus conditions perceived as threatening, fear is usually derived from a real, objective danger in the external environment while the threatening stimulus of anxiety may not be known. Spielberger (1983, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) defined anxiety as the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system. More specifically, Morris, David, Hutchings (1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) claimed that general anxiety consists of two components: worry and emotionality. Worry or cognitive anxiety refers to negative expectations and cognitive concerns about oneself, the situation at hand, and possible consequences, and emotionality or somatic anxiety concerns ones perceptions of the physiological-affective elements of the anxiety experience, which are indications of autonomic arousal and unpleasant feeling states, such as nervousness, upset stomach, pounding heart, sweating, and tension (Morris, David, Hutchings, 1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41, cited in Cubucku, 2007, p. 134). Trait Anxiety, State Anxiety, and Situation-specific Anxiety MacIntyre Gardner (1991, p. 87-92) identified three approaches to the study of anxiety, which are: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is an individuals likelihood of becoming anxious in any situation (Spielberger, 1983, cited in MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 87). As trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality characteristic, a person who is trait anxious would probably become anxious in many different kinds of situations, more frequently or more intensely than most people do (Woodrow, 2006, p. 309). This approach to anxiety research has been criticized in that the interpretation of trait anxiety would be meaningless without being considered in interaction with situations because a particular situation may be perceived as anxiety-provoking by some but not by others although those people may have similar trait anxiety scores (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 88). State anxiety, in contrast to the stable nature of trait anxiety, is momentary and thus not an enduring characteristic of an individuals personality. It is the apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90). In other words, it is a transient anxiety, an unpleasant emotional temporary state, a response to a particular anxiety-provoking stimulus such as an important test (Spielberger, 1983, cited in Wang, 2005, p.13, and cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 4). The higher the level of trait anxiety an individual possess, the higher the level of state anxiety he or she may experience in stressful situations (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90). The state-anxiety approach to anxiety research has been criticized for asking the question Are you nervous now? instead of Did this situation make you nervous?; in other words, it does not the subjects to ascribe their anxiety experience to any particular source (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90). Situation-specific anxiety re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ects a trait anxiety that recurs consistently over time within a given situation (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 87; Spielberger, Anton and Bedell, 1976, cited in Woodrow, 2006, p. 309). Zheng (2008, p. 2) proposed that the three categories of anxiety can be identified on a continuum from stability to transience, with trait anxiety related to a generally stable predisposition to be anxious across situations on one end, state anxiety related to a temporary unpleasant emotional state on the other, and situational-specific anxiety related to the probability of becoming anxious in particular situations in the middle of the continuum. According to MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, p. 90), situation-specific anxiety can be considered as trait anxiety, which is limited to a specific context. This perspective examines anxiety reactions in a well-defined situation such as public speaking, during tests, when solving mathematics problems, or in a foreign languag e class (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90). Facilitating Anxiety and Debilitating Anxiety Facilitating anxiety improves learning and performance, while debilitating anxiety is associated with poor learning and performance. According to Scovel (1978, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 10), anxiety, in its debilitating and facilitating forms, serves simultaneously to motivate and to warn the learner. Facilitating anxiety occurs when the difficulty level of the task triggers the proper amount of anxiety (Scovel, 1978, cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 2). In such case, facilitating anxiety motivates the learner to fight the new learning task; it gears the learner emotionally for approach behavior (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 11). However, although a certain level of anxiety may be beneficial, too much anxiety can become debilitating: it motivates the learner to flee the new learning task; and stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behavior which may lead to avoidance of work and inefficient work performance (Scovel, 1978, cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 2; Scovel, 199 1, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 11). Such phenomenon can be best described by the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which suggests a curvilinear association between arousal and performance (Wilson, 2006, p. 45). When represented graphically on an inverted U-shaped curve, the Yerkes-Dodson Law shows that too little arousal produces minimum performance; moderate arousal enhances performance and reaches a peak at the top of the curve; after that, too much arousal will again hinder performance (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 92). FIGURE 1 (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 92) Anxiety in Foreign Language Learning Language learning anxiety has been classified as a situation-speci ¬Ã‚ c anxiety, or a trait which recurs consistently over time within the given context of language learning situations, that is, the language classrooms (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1991; Horwitz, 2001). Horwitz et al. (1986) were the first to treat foreign language anxiety as a separate and distinct phenomenon particular to language learning (Young, 1991, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 16). According to Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 128), foreign language anxiety is a distinct complex of self-perceptions, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process. Other researchers also proposed similar definitions. Oh (1992, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 16) perceived of foreign language anxiety as a situation-specific anxiety students experience in the classroom, which is characterized by negative self-centered thoughts, feelings of inadequacy, fear of failure, and emotional reactions. In a similar vein, MacIntyre and Gardner (1994, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 16) described foreign language anxiety as the feelings of tension and apprehension, which are particularly associated with activities in a second language learning context. According to Horwitz (1986, p. 126), anxiety centers on the two basic task requirements of foreign language learning: listening and speaking, and difficulty in speaking in class is probably the most frequently cited concern of the anxious foreign language students. On the other hand, Hilleson (1996, cited in Matsuda Gobel, 2004, p. 22), in his diary study, identified various types of anxiety related to different skill areas: the participants in his research demonstrated anxiety related to not only speaking and listening but also reading and writing. Although research into foreign language anxiety has been almost entirely associated with the oral aspects of language use, there has been a recent trend to identify the relationship between anxiety and other language proficiencies ((Horwitz, 2001, p. 120; Matsuda Gobel, 2004, p. 22). According to Tallon (2008, p. 7), while previous studies suggested that foreign language classroom anxiety is a more general type of anxiety about learning a second language with a strong speaking anxiety element, recent research on foreign language anxiety showed the existence of language-skill-specific anxieties: listening, reading, and writing. The Measurement of Anxiety in Foreign Language Learning Generally, there are three major ways of measuring anxiety in research, including behavioral observation; physiological assessment such as heart rates or blood pressure tests; and participants self-reports of their internal feelings and reactions (Casado Dereshiwsky, 2001; Daly, 1991; cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 3). According to Zheng (2008, p. 3), participants self-reports are by far the most common way of examining the anxiety phenomenon in educational research. Early Research on Foreign Language Anxiety As anxiety is a complex, multi-faceted construct (Phillips, 1992, p. 14), it is not surprising that early studies of the relationship between anxiety and language learning provided mixed and confusing results. Youngs (1991, p. 438-439) review of sixteen studies that examining how anxiety interferes with language learning and performance showed inconsistent results both within and across studies, and she concluded that research in the area of anxiety as it relates to second or foreign language learning and performance was scattered and inconclusive. According to Horwitz (2010, p. 157), Scovels review of the then available literature on anxiety and language learning can be considered a turning point in the study of foreign language learning anxiety. Scovel (1978, cited in Horwitz, 2001, p. 113) attributed the truly conflicting set of findings to ambiguity in the conceptualization and measurement of anxiety. He argued that since the early studies employed different anxiety measures such as test anxiety or facilitating-debilitating anxiety, etc, it was understandable that they found different relationships between anxiety and language learning. Some studies found the anticipated negative relationship between anxiety and language achievement, but there were also several studies which found no relationship, and positive relationships between anxiety and second language achievement were also identified. For example, in a research conducted by Chastain in 1975 (cited in Horwitz, 2010, p. 156), the directions of the correlations between anxiety (test anxiety) and language learning (course grades) in three languages (French, German, and Spanish) were not consistent, indicating three levels of correlation: positive, negative, and near zero. Backman (1976, cited in Aida, 1994, p. 156) examined Venezuelan students learning English in the US, whose language progress measured by a placement test, a listening comprehension test, and teachers ratings did not show a significant correlation with any of the anxiety measures. Kleinmann (1977, cited in Horwitz, 2010, p. 156) utilized the facilitating-debilitating anxiety framework to study Spanish-speaking and Arabic-speaking ESL students, and found that learners with more facilitating anxiety had a lower tendency toward avoidance behavior in the oral production of linguistically difficult English structures while there was no evidence that debilitating anxiety negatively influenced their oral performance. Horwitz, Horwitz, and Copes Construct of Foreign Language Anxiety It is essential to trace the development and subsequent use of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz et al., 1986), as this instrument has been employed so widely (in its original form, or translated, or adapted) and with such consistent results since it first appeared. As it has been observed to be highly reliable (Horwitz, 1986; Aida, 1994; Rodriguez Abreu, 2003), I was interested in using it for my research. 3.2.1. Development of the FLCAS According to Horwitz (1986b, p. 559), research into the relationship between anxiety and language achievement had been held back by the lack of a reliable and valid measure of anxiety specific to language learning. She further stated that although teachers and students generally felt that anxiety is an obstacle to be overcome in learning a second language, the empirical literature at that time failed to adequately define second language anxiety and to demonstrate a clear-cut relationship between anxiety and language achievement or performance. She suggested that one likely explanation for the inconclusive results of previous studies was that existing measures of anxiety did not test an individuals response to the specific stimulus of language learning. The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale was developed so as to provide researchers with a standard instrument for such purpose (Horwitz, 1986b, p. 559). This self-report measure was claimed to evaluate the degree of anxiety, as ev idenced by negative performance expectancies and social comparisons, psycho-physiological symptoms, and avoidance behaviors (Horwitz, 1986b, p. 559). The author stated that the scales items were developed from student reports, clinical experience, and a review of related instruments. 3.2.2. Conceptual Foundations of Foreign Language Anxiety From a theoretical viewpoint, Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 127) argued that foreign language anxiety implies performance evaluation within an academic and social context. They therefore identified the three related performance anxieties: communication apprehension test anxiety; and fear of negative evaluation, which are believed to provide useful conceptual building blocks for a description of foreign language anxiety (Horwitz, 1986, p. 128). However, Horwitz (1986, p. 128; 2010, p. 158) also emphasized that foreign language anxiety is not a simple combination of these performance anxieties transferred to foreign language learning. Instead, it is perceived as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process (Horwitz, 1986, p. 128). Communication apprehension was originally defined by McCroskey (1977, cited in Aida, 1994, p. 156) as an individuals level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. According to McCroskey (1984, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 17), the typical behavior patterns of communicatively apprehensive people are communication avoidance, communication withdrawal, and communication disruption. According to Horwitz (1986, p. 127), due to its emphasis on interpersonal interactions, the construct of communication apprehension plays an important role in language learning. Difficulty in speaking in groups (oral communication anxiety) or in front of the class (stage fright), or in listening to or learning a spoken message (receiver anxiety) are suggested to be all manifestations of communication apprehension (Horwitz, 1986, p. 127). People whose typical communication apprehension is high tend to encounter even greater difficulty communicating in a foreign language class where they have little control of the communicative situation, there exists a disparity between learners mature thoughts and their immature foreign language proficiency, and their performance is constantly monitored (Horwitz, 1986; Horwitz and Gregersen, 2002, p. 562). The inability to express oneself fully or to understand others not only lead to frustration and apprehension in typical apprehensive communicators but also make many otherwise talkative people become silent in a foreign language class (Horwitz, 1986, p. 127). Test-anxiety, or the tendency to view with alarm the consequences of inadequate performance in an evaluative situation (Sarason, 1984, cited in Aida, 1994, p. 157), is also relevant to a discussion of foreign language anxiety because performance evaluation is an ongoing feature of most foreign language classes (Horwitz, 1986, p. 127). Some learners may inappropriately view foreign or second language production as a test situation rather than as an opportunity for communication (Horwitz, 1986, cited in Horwitz and Gregersen, 2002, p. 562). According to Horwitz (1986, p. 126), test-anxious students often put unrealistic demands on themselves and feel that anything less than a perfect test performance is a failure. Unfortunately, students who are test-anxious may suffer considerable stress and difficulty in foreign language classrooms since daily evaluation of skills are quite common and frequent in most foreign language classes. Moreover, making mistakes is inevitable in the language l earning process, and even the brightest and most prepared students often make errors (Horwitz, 1986, p. 128). Fear of negative evaluation, the third performance anxiety related to foreign language learning, is defined as apprehension about others evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectations that others would evaluate oneself negatively (Watson and Friend, 1969, cited in Horwitz, 1986, p. 128). Although similar to test anxiety to some extent, fear of negative evaluation is broader in scope in that it applies to any social and/or evaluative situation in which an individual worries about the possibility of being unfavorably evaluated by others (Wilson, 2006, p. 68). Horwitz (1986, p. 128) pointed out what distinguishes foreign language learning from other academic subjects is that language learners are continually evaluated by the teacher and may also feel they are subject to the evaluation of their peers. Unfortunately, learners who are highly concerned about the impressions others are forming of them tend to behave in ways that minimize the possibility of negative eva luations (Horwitz and Gregersen, 2002, p. 562). In foreign language classrooms, students with a fear of negative evaluation tend to sit passively in the classroom, withdrawing from classroom activities that could otherwise enhance their improvement of the language skills or even cutting class to avoid anxiety situations (Aida, 1994, p. 157). 3.2.3. Reliability and Validity of the FLCAS Horwitz et al. (1986) developed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) as a 33-item self-report instrument scored on the basis of a 5-point Likert-type scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Students respond to statements regarding their reactions to foreign/second language classes. Possible scores on the FLCAS range from 33 to 165: the higher the score, the higher the anxiety level. Items were developed from student reports, interviews with specialists about their clinical experiences with anxious language learners, the authors teaching experiences, and a review of related measures of anxiety. According to Horwitz (1986, p. 129), pilot testing of the scale with seventy five introductory Spanish students at the University of Texas at Austin demonstrated its reliability and validity. In terms of internal reliability, the FLCAS achieved internal reliability, achieving an alpha coefficient of .93 with all items producing significant corrected item-total scale correlations. Test- retest reliability over eight weeks yielded an r = .83 (p In one sample of 108 introductory students of Spanish, scores ranged from 45 to 147 (M = 94.5, Mdn = 95.0, SD = 21.4). Internal consistency, as measured by Cronbachs alpha coefficient, was .93, and test-retest reliability over 8 weeks was r = .83, p = .001, n = .78. Aida (1994) tested Horwitz et al.s construct of foreign language anxiety by validating an adapted FLCAS for students of Japanese. She aimed to discover the underlying structure of the FLCAS and to examine whether or not the structure reflects the three kinds of anxiety presented earlier. Her study, using ninety-six students of Japanese, yielded internal consistency of .94 (X = 96.7 and SD = 22.1), using Cronbachs alpha coefficient. The reliability, mean, standard deviation, and range obtained in this study were very similar to those of Horwitz (1986), whose sample was a group of students in introductory Spanish classes. FIGURE 2 (Aida, 1994, p. 159) Manifestations of Foreign Language Learning Anxiety Anxiety, in general, can have physical/physiological, emotional, and behavioral manifestations, and these manifestations can differ with each individual. According to Oxford (1999, cited in Williams Andrade, 2009, p. 4, and cited in Yanling Guizheng, 2006, p. 98): Physical symptoms can include, for example, rapid heartbeat, muscle tension, dry mouth, and excessive perspiration. Psychological symptoms can include embarrassment, feelings of helplessness, fear, going blank, inability to concentrate, as well as poor memory recall and retention. Behavioral symptoms can include physical actions such as squirming, fidgeting, playing with hair or clothing ¼Ã…’ nervously touching objects, stuttering or stammering ¼Ã…’ displaying jittery behavior, being unable to reproduce the sounds or intonation of the target language even after repeated practice. More importantly, behavioral symptoms of anxiety can be manifested in negative avoidance behaviors like inappropriate silence, monosyllabic or non-committal responses, lack of eye contact, unwillingness to participate, coming late, arriving unprepared, showing indifference, cutting class, and withdrawal from the course. Other signs which might reflect language anxiety: overstudying, perfectionism, hostility, excessive competitiveness, as well as excessive self-effacement and self-criticism (e.g. I am so stupid). Causes of Foreign Language Learning Anxiety Research has indicated a number of ways that learning a foreign language can cause anxiety for language learners. Young (1991, p. 427), in a comprehensive review, summarized the personal factors and instructional factors contributing to language anxiety into six categories: 1) personal and interpersonal anxieties, 2) learner beliefs about language learning, 3) instructor beliefs about language teaching, 4) instructor learner interactions, 5) classroom procedures, and 6) language testing. Generally, the six factors proposed by Young (1991) combine with other factors indicated by other researchers to form three main sources of foreign language anxiety: learners characteristics, teachers characteristics, and classrooms characteristics (Tallon, 2009, p. 2). Personal factors (Learner characteristics) Personal and interpersonal issues, according to Young (1991, p. 427), are possibly the most commonly cited and discussed sources of language anxiety. Several studies have discovered the link between anxiety and proficiency (Aida, 1994; Gardner, 1985; Gardner et al., 1997, cited in Zhang, 2010, p. 9). There are significant differences between high proficiency and low proficiency students in language anxiety level with the low proficiency students being much more anxious (Young, 1991). In a similar vein, Horwitz (1986) attributed anxiety to learners immature communicative ability in the foreign language. On the other hand, several other researchers argued that low self-esteem and competitiveness are the two significant sources of learner anxiety. Bailey (1983, cited in Young, 1991, p. 427) studied the diary entries of 11 students and reported that competitiveness can lead to anxiety when language learners compare themselves to others or to an idealized self-image. Likewise, Price (1991 , cited in Young, 1991, p. 427) stated that the majority of her subjects believed their language skills to be weaker than those of the others in class; that they werent doing a good job and that everyone else looked down on them. As regards to self-esteem, Hembree (1988, cited in Young, 1991, p. 427) implied that students who start out with a self-perceived low ability level in a foreign or second language are most likely to experience language anxiety. Krashen (1981, cited in Ohata, 2005, p. 5) also suggests that anxiety can arise according to ones degree of self-esteem as those students tend to worry about what their peers or friends think, in fear of their negative responses or evaluation. In addition, Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) examined the relationship between foreign language anxiety and perfectionism, and found some common characteristics between anxious language learners and perfectionists (e.g., higher standards for their English performance, a greater tendency toward pro crastination, more worry over the opinions of others, and a higher level of concern over their errors). The authors supposed that such characteristics may make language learning unpleasant and less successful for the perfectionist students than for others. Another personality trait that has a positive correlation with foreign language anxiety is shyness: Chu (2008, cited in Zhang, 2010, p. 11) affirmed that anxiety, willingness to communicate, and shyness function together to create a negative impact on Taiwanese students study of English. Learner beliefs about language learning, if erroneous and unrealistic, are also a major factor contributing to language anxiety (Young, 1991, p. 428). According to Tallon (2008, p. 4) when students unrealistic expectations about language learning are not met it can lead to negative feelings about ones intelligence and abilities. For example, the language learners in Horwitzs study (1988, cited in Young, 1991, p. 428): 1) expressed great concern over the correctness of their utterances; 2) placed a great deal of stress on speaking with an excellent accent; 3) supported the notion that language learning is primarily translating from English and memorizing vocabulary words and grammatical rules; as well as 4) believed that two years is enough time to become fluent in another language; and believed some people were more able to learn a foreign language than others. Such erroneous beliefs may make the students later become disappointed and frustrated. In addition, Horwitz (1989, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 5) found a link between several language learning beliefs and levels of foreign language anxiety in university Spanish students: the more anxious learners judged language learning to be relatively difficult and themselves to possess relatively low levels of foreign language aptitude. Palacios (1998, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 5) also found that the following beliefs are associated with learner anxiety: the feeling that mastering a language is an overwhelming task; the feeling that one needs to go through a translation process in order to communicate in the target language; the difficulty of keeping everything in ones head; and the belief that learning a language is easier at an earlier age. Tallon (2008, p. 5) concluded that all of those faulty beliefs may cause the students to have unrealistic expectations about the language learning process, and thus lead to anxiety. Instructional factors Teacher characteristics Instructor beliefs about language teaching, which determines instructor-learner interactions, are a further source of language anxiety because the teachers assumption on the role of language teachers may not always correspond to the students needs or expectations toward the him or her (Ohata, 2005, p. 7). Young (1991, p. 428) listed the following teacher beliefs which have been shown to evoke feelings of anxiety in students: it is necessary for the teacher to be intimidating at times; the instructor is supposed to correct every single mistake made by the students; group or partner work is not appropriate because it can get out of control; the teacher should do most of the talking; and the instructors role is that of a drill sergeant. According to Tallon (2008, p. 5), a judgmental teaching attitude (Samimy, 1994) and a harsh manner of teaching (Aida, 1994) are closely linked to student fear in the classroom. Besides, Palacios (1998, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 5) found the following characteristics of the teacher to be associated with anxiety: absence of teacher support, unsympathetic personalities, lack of time for personal attention, favoritism, absence that the class does not provide students with the tools necessary to match up with the teachers expectations, and the sense of being judged by the teacher or wanting to impress the teacher. Moreover, Young (1999, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 6) stated that using speaking activities that put the learner on the spot in front of their classmates without allowing adequate preparation are also sources of anxiety for many students. Additionally, Ando (1999, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 6) argued that having a native speaker for a teacher can cause anxiety because the teacher may lack the sensitivity of the learning process or the teachers English may be hard for students to understand. Classroom characteristics Classroom procedures and other classrooms characteristics are the third major source of foreign language learning anxiety. Young (1990, cited in Tallon, p. 6) proposed a list of classroom activities which are perceived as anxiety-provoking: (1) spontaneous role play in front of the class; (2) speaking in front of the class; (3) oral presentations or skits in front of the class; (4) presenting a prepared dialogue in front of the class; and (5) writing work on the board. Similarly, Palacios (1998, cited in Tallon, p. 6) found demands of oral production, feelings of being put on the spot, the pace of the class, and the element of being evaluated (i.e., fear of negative evaluation) to be anxiety-producing to students. Notably, Oxford (1999, cited in Tallon, p. 7) emphasized learning and teaching styles as a potential source of language anxiety. If the instructors teaching style and a students learning style are not compatible, style wars can trigger or heighten anxiety levels. In addition, it is understandable that language testing may lead to foreign language anxiety (Young, 1991, p. 428). For example, difficult tests, especially tests that do not match the teaching in class, as well as unclear or unfamiliar test tasks and formats can all create learner anxiety. Effects of Foreign Language Learning Anxiety Foreign Language Learning Anxiety and its Associations with the three stages of the Language Acquisition process (Input, Processing, and Output) The effects of language anxiety can be explained with reference to the cognitive consequences of anxiety arousal (Eysenck, 1979; Schwazer, 1986; cited in MacIntyre Gardner, 1994, p. 2). When an individual becomes anxious, negative self-related cognition begins: thoughts of failure (e.g. I will never be able to finish this), self-deprecation (I am just no good at this), and avoidance (I wish this was over) begin to emerge. They consume cognitive resources that might otherwise be applied to the learning task. This then creates even more difficulties in cognitive processing because fewer available resources may lead to failure, which results in more negative cognitions that further consume cognitive resources, and so on. According to MacIntyre (1995, p. 26), anxiety can be problematic for the language learner because language learning itself is a fairly intense cognitive activity that relies on encoding, storage, and retrieval processes (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 26), and anxiety interferes with each of these cognitive processes by creating a divided attention scenario (Krashe

E Learning And Attituide Of Pakistani People Education Essay

E Learning And Attituide Of Pakistani People Education Essay ABSTRACT The main goal of this research for e-learning is to know about the attitudes of Pakistani society. A questionnaire was used to collect the data. Results show that up there based on educational level are significant differences in attitudes toward education. In addition, the study revealed that Pakistani students have generally good behavior towards e-learning. Deeper attitudes towards e-learning study in Pakistan with a discussion of factors involved. This study contributes to the literature on e-learning studies by systematically measuring the attitudes towards e-learning in Pakistan. Listen Read phonetically Dictionary View detailed dictionary Key Words: E-learning, Attitudes surveys, Pakistan. INTRODUCTION: P1 (1.1) In terms of e-learning, there are many researches for importance of education in various fields took place, but theres limited material available to the people, how they react when they relate to the perspective of Learning is available online, it also explores the reactions of people in academic fields and what they accept or reject it.   With e-learning, curriculum-based education has challenged the fundamental concept, and focused more changes to learn.   In this paper we will demonstrate that there is a difference in people educational perpective and boards and chalks now changes by the implementation of electronic goods in response to participants thinking about learning. BACKGROUND: P1 (1.2) E-learning was created to facilitate people to get information and knowledge of every type when they want that, so it get popularity very fast RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE: (A) It has a spectacular development in the use of e-learning has in recent years, and therefore computer-mediated communication have attracted more attention. If e-learning was introduced, it had created excitement among scientists and practitioners. Many educators and scientists who believe too much hope for e-learning, that offer more access to information and communication, and would ultimately lead to a new revolution in education. Several studies have been conducted to check the settings towards e-learning, but there is virtually no research in this field in Pakistan. PROBLEM STATEMENT: (B) Several researchers from different parts of the world explored the attitudes towards e-learning. Research in this area, we found that it used little research in this field in Pakistan. This is available on the delayed launch of the e-learning system in Pakistan. It is important to note that e-learning tools considerable research in many Western countries. There is no reason to believe that there was not a finding for Pakistan. RESEARCH QUESTION: (P2) (1.3) The importance and relevance of technology in education has added momentum and research in the field of e-learning gained expansion significantly on the new frontiers of education.    Because E-learning is imperative for politics, economy, science and organizations, it is important to recognize and synthesize what these institutions about the purpose and functions of e-learning and also say, settings of e-learning. This basic information can be the formulation for focusing research on e-learning. Thus, this analysis of e- learning initiates the following questions: What is the importance of e-learning in respect to Pakistan. What are the demographic factors affecting e-learning through which we will come to know that how to improve the factors which are beneficial or overcome those factors which deals as a barrier for e-leaning in Pakistan. this research will prove an initial for developers to implement e-learning in Pakistan. HYPOTHESIS: (P2) (1.4) As the e-learning is not very popular in Pakistan and there is a thinking that Pakistan is developing country and it is not up to the mark according to previous researches so we hypothesize that: H1: Pakistani students have negative attitude towards e-learning. H2: there will be a significant difference in attitudes towards e-learning based on the respondents educational level. RESEARCH METHADOLGY : (P3) (1.12) e-learning is a widespread tool and the adoption of this is larger in number and if we are going to conduct research on it in Pakistan we need qualitative data for it to check its authenticity and because we want to know the behavior of people about it and to know differences occur in educational sector. Creating the appropriate methodology for e-learning is not so easy. As independence is the priority of distance learning, student has to rely on himself and not on the help of the teacher or school-mates. The success if this technology lies mainly on the qualities of teaching materials. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES: (P4) (1.5) Few studies analyzed the attitudes towards e-learning. Our study aims to fill this gap by analyzing the attitudes toward e-learning in Pakistan. More specifically our objective is to analyze the Pakistani societys attitudes and expectations towards e-learning, examine the impact of educational or literacy level on the attitudes towards e-learning in Pakistan. LITERATURE REVIEW: (P5) (1.6) DEFINITION OF THE E-LEARNING E-learning is the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. This form of learning currently depends on networks and computers, but will likely evolve into systems consisting of a variety of channell,and technologies as they are developed and adopted. E-learning can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning objects. E-learning may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and may be distributed geographically with varied limits of time (Wentling, Waight, Fleur, Wang, and Kanfer, 2000). THE EVOLUTION TO E-LEARNING The E-learning models of today are analogous to the earlier distance learning approaches. The roots of E-learning can be, therefore, traced back to the correspondence course model of learning. One of the first correspondence programs in the U.S. was developed at Pennsylvania State University in 1892, where the main mission was to provide higher education access to remote and rural areas (Banas et al., 1998. During its heyday in the 1920s and 1930s, school such as Penn State experimented with the use of radio to broadcast their correspondence course lessons nationally. To keep pace with the demand generated by the GI Bill in the 1950s, prestigious universities such as Columbia, Chicago, and Penn State launched several distance education programs. In recent years, the knowledge based economy has exhibited a pervasive and ever increasing demand for innovative ways of providing education and this has led to dramatic changes in learning technology as well as organizations.In the midst of this transition, corporations, government organizations, and educational institutions have to keep pace with the e-learning phenomenon and make strategic decisions on how to adopt e-learning techniques in their unique environments (Zhang et al., 2004). history timeline of e-Learning E-learning developed gradually through the period of time. Computers and the Internet are bringing important roles in e-learning what it is today. Education has different standards in many countries and regions. Software are designed to meet these standards and various academic curriculum. Below we will discuss a brief timeline of the development of e-learning. Instructor Led Training (Pre 1983) Before the availability of computers everywhere and for all was Instructor Led Training (ILD), the primary training method. ILT allows students to concentrate on their studies and to come into direct contact and interaction with their teachers and classmates. Disadvantages of the ILT were high cost and time. multimedia era (1984-1993) The mid-1980s and early 1990s saw a significant change computer era. Most people started to understand the importance of computers and it started to have become a luxury product instead. Different operating systems like Windows, Macintosh for Apple Computer with its simple graphical user interface, which take it easy for the user to a lot of affection for computers. Applications with higher standards with a focus on usability developed by end users. Microsofts Office suite, the contain standards from day to day applications such as MS-Word, MS Excel, MS PowerPoint, MS Access and how has done it with software programs easier. This had its disadvantages. Despite these benefits and savings of time and money, these courses lacked the personal student-teacher interaction and dynamic presentations make the experience a little less satisfying. Students began to be slower and less engaging. Introduction of Web (1994-1999) The introduction of the Internet and World Wide Web, gave insights into schools to explore their potential and find ways to improve education. The introduction of e-mail, Web browser, HTML, streaming media players, low fidelity audio / video and simple Java began to change the face of multimedia training. Use of E-Learning E-learning is used in everywhere and in all kinds of areas. Companies private or public sector, non-profit organizations, NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) and educational institutions. E-learning is a cost-saving with the aim of improving students knowledge. E-learning helps reach geographically dispersed groups to an anytime, anywhere learning, to ensure consistency, to ensure compliance and increase productivity, to name a few. E-LEARNING DIMENSIONS ATTITUDES    Previous research by and large a positive attitude towards e-learning found. For example studied Peters (1993) the potential benefits of e-learning. The results show great agreement, thus benefiting from e-learning in teaching and research. However, faculty members expressed in this study, some reservations concerning the future implementation of e-learning at the university, for example: One day the university will receive all its learning provision through e-learning, e-learning will help faculty members develop better teamwork and inter-personal skills and Implementing e-learning at the university will make faculty members flock to sophisticated technologies in teaching. Advantages Previous researches listed several advantages for e-learning. These include: Obtaining grades from the Web. Communication with the course instructor. Discussions on course content through the discussion-board. Easy access to course related materials. Submitting assignments through the Web. Enhancement of course understanding. Communication with classmates. Flexibility, accessibility, convenience. 2.3.3 Disadvantages Every application has two sides. E-Learning also has its disadvantages: Application accessibility should be ensured 24x7x365. Care should be taken to ensure that students with low bandwidth also can access these. Developer limitation have some limitation in accessing this this. Type of content (not all content is suitable for e-learning): Learner motivation and initiativeto e-learning, so that they improve with time. E-learning should be portable to all computer applications via CDs, DVDs and Internet. 2.3.6 Differences in Attitudes towards E-Learning Based On Educational Levels In general, the experience of applying e-learning has to play as an important role in e-learning. For example, in one study (Cheng, 2006) the results of the survey indicated that students who opt for e-learning business courses proved to be much more willing to use e-learning again. It is easy to see that students who applied for e-learning for business courses have a positive attitude and inclination towards the e-learning. 2.3.7 The Future As already mentioned, E-learning has revolutionized the education model in all areas. E-learning is not confined to the boundaries of academic institutions such as schools, colleges and universities, but applies to all types of areas in which a continuous process leaning. We will now discuss the various aspects that will be affected by the introduction of e-learning. 2.3.7.1 E-Learning Web Services Now offer their applications to scale and the needs of small, medium and large organizations. E-learning is not only on academic qualifications, but at all levels have been learning is a continuous process is limited. E-Learning Services will also start in this type of product scalability, where to look it affordable for everyone. 2.3.7.5 Knowledge Transfer Staff training is an area that all successful businesses today focus on employees at the capital of a company, and their successful ventures are sure that they invest in training its employees. Often this is done by sending the employees in different locations. Train-the-trainer and employee-to-employee knowledge transfer are also effective. E-learning is now to meet the individual requirements of the organizations and their departments. This is aimed at providing quality and in depth knowledge specific to the organization and especially for the employees and their work. 2.5 Example of Seminal Studies in E-learning Many studies have been conducted in this field by many authors. Below I have mentioned one of them 2.5.1 Newtons Study (2003) The paper deals with the issues perceived as being important barriers to using technology in teaching and learning within the academic staff community working in higher education in the UK. Methodology and Data Analysis: The empirical data was gathered using questionnaires distributed to 300 academicians in the Information Technology sector of UK. The questionnaire was divided into three main sections: (1) teaching experience using technology; (2) staff perception on usefulness of technology; (3) additional comments and suggestions. The respondents were selected via institutional websites. This study focused primarily in the Information Technology field. The statistical software package SPSS was used to analyze and present the data. Result: A virtual learning environment does not necessarily mean that they do not feel that these initiatives are important. The study shows that although a lack of clarity is evident in distance learning, yet this shows that there is a willingness to participate in this activity which reflects the intrinsic values played by academic staff on teaching and learning. Virtual learning environment barriers are not related to institutional support. Organisational encouragement is important towards the progression of innovation. Organisation should ensure that effective strategies are in place prior to implementing web based distance learning. 2.6 PAKISTAN AND E-LEARNING Pakistan has a good attention for the development of its information technology and communications networks and the focus in education is particularly strong. The following sections are on the Internet, e-government, e-commerce and to discuss training. Awareness and education in Pakistan An early initiative of the teachers to take advantage of distance learning was conducted through an online course to expose. The first online course attended by 40 Pakistani educators was to provide an introduction to Web-based resources for English language lessons with special emphasis on secondary education. These courses help teachers to learn about computers and also how they learn to use as a teaching tool. This improves the teaching environment . RATIONALE : (P6) (1.6) The main reason for doing research on E-learning is its popularity in todays world, because everyone will now get to education, knowledge and information by sitting in the four walls of their houses. Some of the countries are not able to follow these technologies, so we do our research are home to tell people about the importance of e-learning in a country so that there is a large margin in the global economy, people now That can not move, I mean who are disabled can get training with the advent of e-learning project tool. REFLECTIONS : (P6) (1.8) Upon completion of this investigation, I learned how to better argue a point in a paper.Using facts and examples, my arguments have become much better. A reader takes my arguments more seriously, on the facts when I need them again, especially researched facts from credible sources.    My research skills improved a lot during the research. Before the actual research, I had an idea, I wanted to do. I did not have a solid, coherent argument. During my research, I was able to develop on this issue.    This paper, in my opinion, was one of my best research. Dr.Karim Rezual helped me a lot to do this research, he is very strict teacher and this is the only reason that I did my research in time and with my best. This way I would be more about the subject. More knowledge about the subject, the paper made much easier. It helped me to develop more points and at a good conclusion. SCOPE: (P6) (1.9) The whole of study is about internet learning and what is the attitudeof people of Pakistan towards it as well as effectiveness of e-learning. In the process of preparing this study, I also have to go through some problems and obstacles that caused some limitations to my study. One of these limitations was time. The time of collecting data was limited, and hence, little information was available in articles. Results, therefore, had to be interpreted scrupulously. Action plan [D2] I have done my research through the following means I have taken information and knowledge from different and multiple sources e.g. internet, libraries, online teaching websites and and from the experts of e-learning who gave regular lectures on internet. This study gives different suggestions on the attitudes of e-learning and how countries respond to these changes. Study the possible solutions to resolve the challenges and to give them better solutions to cop those challenges This research works as a mentor to teach those people who are interested in doing these types of assignments There also some recommendations from highly qualified people I have also prepared a questionnaire to conduct a survey which make my research easy to find out results. CODE OF ETHICS : (P7) While doing research on e-learning, we have collected and analysed the data by keeping in mind the code of ethics. we have used all the data relavant to it through proper means , I mean from journals and articles which are available for everyone to get information from that. There is no possibility of misuse of data in this rsearch because all of the information is taken from professionals of this field. Everything is conducted in this manner which will prove its authenticity in whole of the research. It should be acknowledged that the basic intent of -learning is a moral good. Attempting to provide the greatest good to the greatest number of people is inherently an ethical task JUSTIFICATION FOR USING THIS METHODOLOGY: (P8) (1.12) we have chosen qualitative approach to gather data because in this type of data researchers subjective judgement becomes the part of the research instrument. A lot of researchers have used this approach and you can check its importance through this quotations written on qualitative data. All research ultimately has   a qualitative grounding Donald Campbell The whole of the research is done to obtain the results from people of Pakistan whether they think positive or negative toward e-learning and also check the educational differences in e-learning. And for that reviews of the professional who are directly related to this particular area and opinions are either taken or studied. DATA COLLECTION AND REVIEWING : (P9) (1.14) (a) The mode that we have selected for our research was collection of secondary data because one the main advantage of this data ease of access , so we took information and data from international publications, journals, libraries, newspapers, magazines, from previous researches conducted in respect to e-learning and from our lecturer DR.Karim Rezual. All these resources helped us to get better understanding to accomplish the topic which we have chosen for research. Some part of qualitative analysis is also involved to measure the future and prospects of e-learning.questionaire was distributed among students so that we can take an opinion about their views towards e-learning. REVIEWING AND ANALYSATION : (P10)(1.14)(b) After completion of all steps came a step to review analyse the data which you have gathered for your research, it is just done to prove the reliability of data which you are going to use in your research, there are numerous strategies employed in this although a laptop was used to interpret data then we have prepared a literature review by keeping in mind the main point which we need to put in our research, this process carried on by breaking up the data into meaningfull form and after this it is aanalysed that the data is without errors and bugs. RESEARCH DESIGN: (M1) (1.13) The design of qualitative research is probably the most flexible of the various experimental techniques, encompassing a variety of accepted methods and structures. From an individual case study to an extensive survey, this type of study still needs to be carefully constructed and designed, but there is no standardized structure. In this research we are going in depth to find the problems associated with people who are using or not using e-learning, Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations. The research data and findings were reviewed constantly and strong effort was made to collect the best material available. This document is based on secondary research, where the information is mostly taken from internet resources and books . FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH: (P11) (1.5) It is known to eeveryone that e-learning getting popular in the global world and it is very fruitfull for all of the sectors e.g institutions, organizations etc. but there are also some problems to it which we recognize while doing thid research are Lack of technology In all areas, available in limited areas Lack of communication Not a good access to the internet Some people are stuck to their old teaching method or love to do manual works People of Pakistan instead of these problems are ready to go with a fast paced world and the students who are getting their education in different departments and different fields have different views about the popularity of e-learning. ANALYSIS INTERMS OF RESEARCH SPECIFICATION: (M3) (1.14) Different researchers have done research on this topic but in Pakistan I think there was a positive response toward e-learning because they prefer to study by electronic means so the whole of the research tell about their views and behaviors about e-learning and ultimately their response. So we think that Pakistan need this facility in proper way to come in the developed countries queue who have adopted this very earlier. RELULTS OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS (M2)(1.15) If wee look at research question and hypothesis then we can say that there should be some work on e-learning because people have a good view about it , there are some problems faced in educational area but nothing is present in this world without flaws, so if we just look that they showed a positive attitude so there is need to work on it. Reliability is the instruments ability to provide consistent results in repeated uses (Gatewood and Field, 1990). The basic measure for reliability is the Cronbachs alpha which was also kept in mind and its datas validity is also assured. EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH: (D1) It was not a simple task to do research on this topic while we are in other country it needed every statement and every judgments based on facts and realities and information from reliable sources . everything is according to the procedure defined for doing research. A set planning was done to do this research and all the findings is based on logics and evidence. Although it was not easy yet it covered all the points in order to get distinction . CONCLUSION: (P12) (1.17) Few studies have analyzed the attitudes towards e-learning in the Asian world. The aim of this study was to fill this gap by analyzing the attitudes towards e-learning in Pakistan. The negative attitude and the effects of educational level on attitudes towards e-learning was also studied. In addition, the e-Learning Scale reliability and validity were tested for the first time. From those results we can conclude that there is a positive attitude towards E-learning in Pakistan. On the other hand, a gap in this respect was recognized on the basis of education. Finally, the results showed that e-Learning is a reliable and valid measurement of attitudes towards e-learning. This allows other researchers to use this scale in their empirical studies. FUTURE RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS: (D3)(1.18)    This study concludes that the e-learning scale is reliable and valid in Pakistan. However, only one form of validity in this study, carried out the convergent validity analysis. Also, the validity of e-learning scale are further tested by new researchers, because the e-learning attitudes in Pakistan may change over time and that further research would continue in the field the aura of e-learning to life and strong and make education shine in all directions with a new e-learning light for all who have yearning for it. Although e-learning systems in Pakistan are not a popular phenomenon, they are patronized by students and positive international attitudes. In education, showed e-learning systems that support and promote the traditional education systems.    It is believed that Pakistan is to facilitate an association of e-learning institutions to a planned deployment of the system throughout the country. This association should be aware of e-learning problems and try to manage these problems by offering training programs for teachers and students in fields such as e-education and e-privacy systems. 5.2 IMPLICATIONS The following section talks about the research and policy implications of e-learning. 5.2.1 Research Implications This research contributes to the literature on e-learning studies by systematically and analytically assessing the attitudes towards e-learning in Pakistan. Perhaps the findings of this research will also lend increased confidence to researchers who have been using the e-learning scale with reservations, or who might have avoided the instrument because of concerns about validity. We should leave no stone unturned to reap the fruits of scientific and technological innovations with e-learning being one of them.

Academic Effects of Active Parental Involvement Essay -- A Level Essays

Academic Effects of Active Parental Involvement Findings demonstrate that parent involvement in a child’s learning is positively related to their achievement. The first teachers of our children are the adults in the home. This is where the children learn their attitudes and values that are engraved in them for the remainder of their lives. When families as a whole participate, in children’s education in positive ways, there are noticeable changes in the child’s test scores, attendance records, quality of work, attitudes and behavior, graduation rates, and the amount that enroll in higher education. The level of involvement is often questioned by the parents; however, research suggests that â€Å"the more intensively parents are involved in their children’s learning, the more beneficial are the achievement effects† (Cotton and Wikelund, 2002, p. 2). It is believed that when parents monitor homework, encourage participation in extracurricular activities, are active in parent-teacher associa tions, and help children develop plans for their future, children are more likely to respond and do well in school. There are indications that prove that the most effective form of parental involvement is when the parents work directly with their child. Researchers find that the more activity each parent puts in, there will be greater achievement for that student in comparison to the children with passive parents. When parents actively participate, that is work with their children, attend their activities, and help in the classroom, greater achievement is noted. Academic Effects of Passive Parental Involvement Passive parent involvement is better than no involvement, however the effects aren’t as successful for the child. This... ... This article helps to explain the social effects that parental participation has on children. It describes how self-esteem and motivation is related to the amount parental interest in the child and their education. Watkins, T. (1997). Teachers communications, child achievements, and parent traits in parent involvement models. Journal of Educational Research, 91 (Sept./Oct.), 14. Retrieved March 12, 2002. This article explains how parental involvement through home instruction, volunteering in the classroom, has been linked to the quality of children’s learning and motivation. Swick, K. (1984). Inviting Parents into the Young Child’s World. Stipes Publishing Company. Playing Their Parts: What Parents and Teachers Really Mean by Parental Involvement. (1999). Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on April 15, 2002 from the World Wide Web.

Physics of Neurons Essay -- physics neuron

The human nervous system is divided into two parts, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system, CNS, is just the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system, PNS, includes the nerves and neurons that extend outwards from CNS, to transmit information to your limbs and organs for example. Communication between your cells is extremely important, neurons are the messengers that relay information to and from your brain. Nerve cells generate electrical signals to transmit information. Neurons are not necessarily intrinsically great electrical conductors, however, they have evolved specialized mechanisms for propagating signals based on the flow of ions across their membranes. In their inactive state neurons have a negative potential, called the resting membrane potential. Action potentials changes the transmembrane potential from negative to positive. Action potentials are carried along axons, and are the basis for "information transportation" from one cell in the nervous system to another. Other types of electrical signals are possible, but we'll focus on action potentials. These electrical signals arise from ion fluxes produced by nerve cell membranes that are selectively permeable to different ions. Neurons and glia (cells that support neurons) are specialized cells for electrical signaling over long distances. Understanding neuronal structure is important for understanding neuronal function. The number of synaptic inputs recieved by each nerve cell in our (human) nervous system varies from 1-100,000! This wide range reflects the fundamental purpose of nerve cells, to integrate info from other neurons. Cellular organization of neurons resembles that of other ce... ...ive current flow. Another way to improve the passive flow is to insulate the axonal membrane with myelin. This reduces the amount of current that would otherwise leak out of the axon and increases the distance that the current can flow passively. Myelination, aka axon insulation, increases action potential conduction up to 150m/s compared to 0.5-10m/s conduction velocities of unmyelnated axons! Speedy delivery of current (information) along axons is also due to the nodes of Ranvier. Nodes of Ranvier are gaps between insulated portions of the axon. The gaps create a place where the current can flow out of the axon so an action potential can be generated. Action potentials are started at one end of the node, flow passively through the myelinated axon, and pop out the other side to jump to the next node. This jumping of action potentials is called saltatory.

From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing Essay

This report discusses how the marketing mix management paradigm has dominated the marketing thought, research and practice since it was introduced almost 40 years ago, but today new marketing approaches are being introduced and used. The globalization of business and the evolving recognition of the importance of customer retention and market economies and of customer relationship economics, among other trends, reinforce the change in mainstream marketing. Marketing Mix The term â€Å"marketing mix† is probably one of the most famous marketing terms used by millions of people. Its elements are known as the Four P’s, which are price, place, product, and promotion. These four variables are the variables that marketing managers can control in order to best satisfy customers in the target market. Figure 1: Marketing Mix Model – 4Ps Marketing the way most textbooks treat it today was introduced around 1960. The concept of the marketing mix and the Four Ps of marketing – product, price, place and promotion – entered the marketing textbooks at that time. Quickly they also became treated as the unchallenged basic model of marketing, so totally overpowering previous models and approaches, such as, for example, the organic functionalist approach advocated by Wroe Alderson as well as other systems-oriented approaches and parameter theory developed by the Copenhagen School in Europe that these are hardly remembered, even with a footnote in most textbooks of today. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) The marketing mix refers to variables that a marketing manager can control to influence a brand’s sales or market share. Traditionally, these variables are summarized as the Four Ps of marketing: product, price, promotion, and place (i. e. , distribution). Product refers to aspects such as the firm’s portfolio of products, the newness of those products, their differentiation from competitors, or their superiority to rivals’ products in terms of quality. Promotion refers to advertising, detailing, or informative sales promotions such as features and displays. Price refers to the product’s list price or any incentive sales promotion such as quantity discounts, temporary price cuts, or deals. Place refers to delivery of the product measured by variables such as distribution, availability, and shelf space. The 4Ps model is just one of many marketing mix lists that have been developed over the years. And, whilst the questions we have listed above are keys, they are just a subset of the detailed probing that may be required to optimize your marketing mix. Amongst the other marketing mix models have been developed over the years is the 7Ps, sometimes called the extended marketing mix, which include the first 4 Ps, plus people, processes and physical layout decisions. Another marketing mix approach is Lauterborn’s 4Cs, which presents the elements of the marketing mix from the buyer’s, rather than the seller’s, perspective. It is made up of Customer needs and wants (the equivalent of product), Cost (price), Convenience (place) and Communication (promotion). Cultural policies to promote diversity of cultural expressions today must deal with numerous factors and needs, some of which concern the right of all groups to their forms of expression, and others strictly with business feasibility and the possibility of marketing on a global scale. These different factors may be difficult to reconcile but they are complementary as none can survive and be managed without referring to or involving the other. From the perspective of production development, it is frequently stated that cultural expressions need to find their market in order to survive, but it is also the case that the sacrificing of cultural content with little market value lowers the value of cultural production overall. From the perspective of rights to and processes of identity construction, culture generates services that cannot be governed exclusively by the market, especially in view of the marginality of subaltern groups. Nevertheless, it is almost impossible to think of cultural practices and consumption today without involving the market in some way. For marketers in the cultural industry it is important to identify the factors influencing consumers’ purchasing. Cultural factors are essentially important in selection of the two elements of â€Å"place† and â€Å"product†. For example, someone brought p in an environment that values art would be more likely to buy artistic products. Even it may be important considering customers in terms of their sub-culture. One may be surrounded by people who not only value art but place a higher priority on paintings as opposed to the music. As a result, they will be more likely to buy paintings rather than musical instrument. â€Å"Pr icing† the artistic products and activities should also follow a logic trend. This practice may be done through some standards set among artists of the same class or by the very artist creator of his work. In general, as it can be seen, due to the difference. (Shahhosseini & Ardahaey, 2011) The Four Ps of the marketing mix became an indisputable paradigm in academic research, the validity of which was taken for granted. For most marketing researchers in large parts of the academic world it seems to remain the marketing truth even today. The Four Ps of the marketing mix had been even referred to as â€Å"the holy quadruple†¦of the marketing faith written in tablets of stone. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) The marketer plans various means of competition and blends them into a â€Å"marketing mix† so that a profit function is optimized, or rather satisfied. The â€Å"marketing mix†, concept was introduced by Neil Borden in the 1950s, and the mix of different means of competitions was soon labeled the Four Ps. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) Any marketing paradigm should be well set to fulfill the marketing concept, i. e. the notion that the firm is best off by designing and directing its activities according to the needs and desires of customers in chosen target markets. Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) American Marketing Association, in its most recent definition states that â€Å"marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchange and satisfy individual and organizational objectives† (emphasis added) (Gronroos, From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing: Towards a Paradigm Shift in Marketing, 1994) The problem with the Marketing Mix One can easily argue that the four Ps of the marketing mix are not well able to fulfill the requirements of the marketing concept. As Dixon and Blois put it, â€Å"†¦indeed it would not be unfair to suggest that far from being concerned with a customer’s interests (i. e. somebody for whom something is done) the views implicit in the Four P approach is that the customer is somebody to whom something is done! † (emphasis added) . To use a marketing metaphor, the marketing mix and its four Ps constitute a production-oriented definition of marketing, and not a market-oriented or customer oriented one. Moreover, although the interactive nature of the Ps is recognized, the model itself does not explicitly include any interactive elements. Furthermore, it does not indicate the nature and scope of such interactions. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) Van Waterschoot and Van den Bulte recognize three flaws in the Four P model: * â€Å"The properties or characteristics that are the basis for classification have not been identified. * The categories are not mutually exclusive. * There is a catch-all subcategory that is continually growing† . Many marketing-related phenomena are not included. Moreover, as Johan Arndt has concluded, marketing research remains narrow in scope and even myopic, and methodological issues become more important than substance matters. Gronroos, From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing: Towards a Paradigm Shift in Marketing, 1994) The Nature of the Marketing Mix The usefulness of the Four Ps as a general marketing theory for practical purposes is, to say the least, highly questionable. Originally, although they were largely based on empirical induction and earlier lists of marketing functions of the functional school of marketing, they were probably developed under the influence of microeconomic theory and specially the theory of monopolistic competition of the 1930s, in order to add more realism to that theory. However, very soon the connection to microeconomic theory was cut off and subsequently totally forgotten. Theoretically, the marketing mix became just a list of Ps without roots. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) Managing the marketing mix makes marketing seem too easy to handle and organize. Marketing is separated from other activities of the firm and delegated to specialists who take care of the analysis, planning and implementation of various marketing tasks, such as market analysis, marketing planning, advertising, sales promotion, sales, pricing, distribution and product packaging. Marketing departments are created to take responsibility for the marketing function of the firm, The marketing department approach to organizing the marketing function has isolated marketing from design, production, deliveries, technical service, complaints handling, invoicing and other activities of the firm. As a consequence, the rest of the organization has been alienated from marketing. Therefore, it has made it difficult, often even impossible, to turn marketing into the â€Å"integrative function† that would provide other departments with the market-related input needed in order to make the organization truly market oriented and reach a stage of â€Å"co-ordinated marketing† the marketing specialists organized in a marketing department may get alienated from the customers. Managing the marketing mix means relying on mass marketing. Customers become numbers for the marketing specialists, whose actions, therefore, typically are based on surface information obtained from market research reports and market share statistics. Frequently such marketers act without ever having encountered a real customer. The marketing department concept is obsolete and has to be replaced by some other way of organizing the marketing function, so that the organization will have a chance to become market-oriented. A traditional marketing department will always, in the final analysis, stand in the way of spreading market orientation. The use of the marketing mix management paradigm and the Four Ps has made it very difficult for the marketing function to earn credibility. Some firms have solved this problem not only by downscaling or altogether terminating their marketing departments but also by banning the use of the term marketing for the marketing function. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) What is the History of the Marketing Mix? A paradigm like this has to be well founded by theoretical deduction and empirical research; otherwise much of marketing research is based on a loose foundation and the results of it questionable. Let us look at the history of the marketing mix paradigm and the four P’s. The marketing mix developed from a notion of the marketer as a â€Å"mixer of ingredients†, which was an expression originally used by James Culliton (1948) in a study of marketing costs in 1947 and 1948. The marketer plans various means of competitions and blends them into a â€Å"marketing mix†, so that a profit function is optimized, or rather satisfied. The marketing mix is actually a list of categories of marketing variables, and to begin with, this way of defining or describing a phenomenon can never be considered a very valid one. A list never includes all relevant elements, it does not fit every situation, and it becomes obsolete. And indeed, marketing academics every now and then offer additional P’s to the list, once they have found the standard â€Å"tablet of faith† too limited. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) Kotler has, in the context of megamarketing, added public relations and politics, thus expanding the list to six P’s. In service marketing. Booms and Bitner (1982) have suggested three additional P’s, people, physical evidence and process. Judd (1987) among others, has argued for just one new P, people. Advocators of the marketing mix paradigm sometimes have suggested that service should be added to the list of P’s (e. g. Lambert and Harrington 1989 and Collier 1991). J It is, by the way, interesting to notice that after the four P’s were definitely canonized sometime in the early 1970s new items to the list are almost exclusively put in the form of P’s It is also noteworthy that Borden’s original marketing mix included 12 elements, and that this list was not intended to be a definition at all. Borden considered it guidelines only, which the marketer probably would have to reconsider in any given situation. In line with the â€Å"mixer of ingredients† metaphor he also implied that the marketer would blend the various ingredients or variables of the mix into an integrated marketing program. This is a fact that advocators of the four P’s (or five, six, seven or more P’s) and of today’s marketing mix approach seem to have totally forgotten. In fact, the four P’s represent a significant oversimplification of Borden’s original concept. McCarthy either misunderstood the meaning of Borden’s marketing mix when he reformulated the original list in the shape of the rigid mnemonic of the four P’s where no blending of the P’s is explicitly included; or his followers misinterpreted McCarthy’s intentions. In many marketing textbooks organized around the marketing mix, such as Philip Kotler’s well-known Marketing Management (e. g. 991), the blending aspect and the need for integration of the four P’s are discussed, even in depth, but such discussions are always limited due to the fact that the model does not explicitly include an integrative dimension. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) Contemporary Theories of Marketing In most marketing textbooks the marketing mix management paradigm and its Four Ps are still considered the theory of marketing. Indeed , this is the case in much of the academic research into marketing; however, since the 1960s alternative theories of marketing have been developed. As Moller observes in a recent overview of research traditions in marketing, â€Å"from the functional view of marketing ‘mix’ management our focus has extended to the strategic role of marketing, aspects of service marketing, political dimensions of channel management, interactions in industrial networks; to mention just a few evolving trends. The interaction/network approach to industrial marketing was originated in Sweden at Uppsala University during the 1960s and has since spread to a large number of countries. Between the parties in a network various interactions take place, where exchanges and adaptations to each other occur. A flow of goods and information as well as financial and social exchanges takes place in the network. In such a network the role and forms of marketing are not very clear. All exchanges, all sorts of interactions have an impact on the position of the parties in the network. The interactions are not necessarily initiated by the seller – the marketer according to the marketing mix management paradigm – and they may continue over a long period of time, for example, for several years. The seller, who at the same time may be the buyer in a reciprocal setting, may of course employ marketing specialists, such as sales representatives, market communication people and market analysts but in addition to them a large number of persons in functions which according to the marketing mix management paradigm are non-marketing, such as research and development, design, deliveries, customer training, invoicing and credit management, has a decisive impact on the marketing success of the â€Å"seller† in the network. In the early 1970s the marketing of services started to emerge as a separate area of marketing with concepts and models of its own geared to typical characteristics of services. In Scandinavia and Finland the Nordic School of Services more than research into this field elsewhere looked at the marketing of services as something that cannot be separated from overall management. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) The New Approaches and the Marketing Mix The interaction and network approach of industrial marketing and modern service marketing approaches, especially the one by the Nordic School, clearly views marketing as an interactive process in a social context where relationship building and management is a vital cornerstone. They are in some respects clearly related to the systems-based approaches to marketing of the 1950s (compare, for example, Alderson 1957). The marketing mix paradigm and its four P’s, on the other hand, is a much more clinical approach, which makes the seller the active part and the buyer and consumer passive. No personalized relationship with the producer and marketer of a product is supposed to exist, other than with professional sales representatives in some case. The development of innovative theories, models and concepts of industrial marketing (interaction/network approach) and service marketing has clearly demonstrated that the marketing mix paradigm and its four P’s finally have reached the end of the road as the universal marketing theory. From a management point of view the four P’s, undoubtedly, may have been helpful. The use of various means of competition became more organized. However, the four P’s were never applicable to all markets and to all types of marketing situations. The development of alternative marketing theories discussed above demonstrate that even from a management perspective, the marketing mix and its four P’s became a problem. Their pedagogic elegance and deceiving sense of simplicity made practical marketing management look all too clinical and straightforward even for actors in the consumer packaged goods field where they were originally intended to be used. Consumer goods amounts to a considerable business, and there the four P’s could still fulfill a function. However, many of the customer relationships of manufacturers of consumer goods are industrial-type relationships with wholesalers and retailers, and the retailers of consumer goods more and more consider themselves service providers. In such situations the four P’s have less to offer even in the consumer goods field. Moreover, as far as the marketing of consumer goods from the manufacturer to the ultimate consumers is concerned, there is a growing debate whether one can continue to apply marketing in the traditional mass marketing way. Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) The Future: The Relationship Marketing Concept In the relationship marketing concept to be presented here the core variables are relationships, networks and interaction. The choice is not arbitrary; these variables recurrently emerge in the new marketing theories that have challenged the reigning marketing management paradigm during the past twenty-five years. These variables are not new; they were there thousands of years ago and they present themselves ‘‘here and now. ’ They will be here in the future, no matter if they are represented by relationship marketing or something else. They are part of society. In fact, society is nothing less than a network of relationships within which we interact, and marketing is a dimension of society. Research and education in business have only recently begun to acknowledge the existence of relationships, but have not as yet understood their omnipresence and deep impact on marketing. Although it is encouraging that relationships have been made visible and that the interest in them is soaring, major problems follow. One is that those who start to explore and implement relationship marketing techniques are often not sufficiently familiar with the foundations of relationship marketing, its paradigm. Furthermore, relationship marketing is put under siege by the traditional marketing management paradigm, and the techniques used in relationship marketing implementation are often more grounded in marketing management values than in relationship marketing values. (Gummesson, 2002) An integral element of the relationship marketing approach is the promise concept, which has been strongly emphasized by Henrik Calonius According to him the responsibilities of marketing do not only, or predominantly, including giving promises and thus persuading customers as passive counterparts on the marketplace to act in a given way. Fulfilling promises that have been given is equally important as means of achieving customer satisfaction, retention of the customer base and long-term profitability (compare also Reichheld and Sasser). He also stresses the fact that promises are mutually given and fulfilled. (Gronroos, Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, 1994) Relationship Marketing There are many definitions of relationship marketing, most of them stressing the development and maintenance of long term relationships with customers and sometimes with other stakeholders. Total relationship marketing is marketing based on relationships, networks and interaction, recognizing that marketing is embedded in the total management of the networks of the selling organization, the market and society. It is directed to long term win-win relationships with individual customers, and value is jointly created between the parties involved. It transcends the boundaries between specialist functions and disciplines. Total relationship marketing embraces not just the supplier-customer dyad as does one-to-one marketing and CRM (customer relationship management) but also relationships to a supplier’s own suppliers, to competitors and to middlemen; these are all market relationships. (Gummesson, 2002) Is There a Paradigm Shift in Marketing? Relationships do not function by themselves. As McInnes said already three decades ago, â€Å"the existence of a market relation is the foundation of exchange not a substitute for it†. Only in extreme situations, for example when the computer systems of a buyer and a materials provider are connected to each other in order to initiate and execute purchase decisions automatically, the relationship, at least for some time, may function by itself. In such situations one comes close to what Johan rndt called â€Å"domesticated markets†, where â€Å"transactions†¦are usually handled by administrative processes on the basis of negotiated rules of exchange†. Normally, advertising, distribution and product branding, for example, will still be needed, but along with a host of other activities and resources. (Gummesson, 2002) However, what marketing deserves is new perspectives, which are more market-oriented and less manipulative, and where the customer indeed is the focal point as suggested by the marketing concept. Conclusion Marketing mix as a general perspective evolved because at one time it was an effective way of describing and managing many marketing situations. Before the marketing mix there were other approaches. Now time has made this approach less helpful other than in specific situations. New paradigms have to come. After all, we live in the 1990s, and we cannot for ever continue to live with a paradigm from the 1950s and 1960s. However, bearing in mind the long-term damages of the marketing mix as the universal truth, we are going to need several approaches or paradigms Relationship marketing will be one of them.